Sender Costs

• Conspicuousness to predators and parasites

  • Visual, auditory, or olfactory signals

• Energetic costs of signaling

• Lost time

• Conflict with original function

See Kotiaho, J.S. 2001 Costs of sexual traits: a mismatch between

theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. Biol. Rev. 76:

365-376.

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